Benefits of Microbial Fuel Cell

Advantages of Microbial Fuel Cell Jessica Johnson This report centers around Microbial energy component advancement and how it can assist us with conquering the enthusiastic issues we face as of now, simultaneously giving an answer for treat squander water all the more productively that the ebb and flow ways we are going on about doing as such. The report point is to show the advantages of using Microbial Fuel Cell to dispose of the brutal exercises we go through now to keep with the modernization of the world while simultaneously annihilating it, by utilizing the very germs and microorganisms that we fear. The exploration has presents instances of how the utilization of microbial will help us over the long haul once we can utilize this innovation for some more things on a significantly bigger scope The presence of MFC has demonstrated to be helpful in a few different ways right now: Topic Point of the report Discoveries Presentation We as individuals consider germs to be microscopic organisms as accomplishing more mischief than anything, it fulfills us incredibly to realize that we can use these germs and microbes for a more prominent great. As the world turns out to be progressively modernized it is basic that we find different wellsprings of vitality that is perfect, sustainable and promptly accessible at a reasonable expense. Nature is the first Microbial power device as it has been changing over natural substrates into vitality (Adenosine triphosphate-ATP) since the get-go. Microbial power modules, innovation that is still in its creating stages which utilizes the biochemical exercises of microorganisms as an asset to get hydrogen make power. Utilizing MFCs are exceptionally advantageous to the earth as it helps in the decrease of contamination and cuts the expense of water treatment colossally. Aside from being a vitality source, MFCs likewise can possibly give feasible force sources to separated networks a nd desalinate water. Figure 1: A basic Microbial Fuel cell To most Microbial power module would appear as though something that is new to the world yet using organisms to deliver vitality was brought to the world in the mid 1900s by Professor M. C. Potter. Potter utilized Escherichia coli and Saccharomyces to deliver electrical vitality at the University of Durham (Mercer, 2012 and Potter, 1912). During his investigations, Potter found the capacity to outfit power from microorganisms and accepted that this revelation would likewise profit people. Potter thought of making a microbial power module however did not have the information on bacterial digestion. Quick forward to the 1980s, M. J. Allen and H. Subsides Bennetto further created Potters thought alongside the enthusiasm for giving reasonable power to segregated zones, trend setting innovation and a superior understanding electron transport chain this empowered Allen and Bennetto to make an essential plan for the primary Microbial Fuel Cell.â Most microorganisms are comprised of a lipi d film that comes up short on the capacity to direct power, Allen and Bennetto found that by utilizing electron arbiters to ship electrons to the terminals a more prominent electrical yield made (Davis and Higson, 2007). Korean scientist B-H Kim found that some microorganism had electrochemical movement and didn't require an electron middle person, this made a MFC that didn't require go betweens that were harmful and costly. As of late more consideration has been equipped towards Microbial Fuel Cells because of their ecologically well disposed working conditions and the capacity for them to use biodegradable substrates as fuel The microorganisms in a microbial power device work by oxidizing and lessening natural atoms to make vitality. Figure 2: shows a Microbial Fuel Cell is part into equal parts, a high-impact half containing a cathode that permits oxygen. The anaerobic side contains no oxygen, the anode goes about as an electron receptor for the bacterial procedure. Isolating the two chambers is a proton trade layer or a salt scaffold, this keeps oxygen from entering the anaerobic side while at the same time permitting hydrogen particles to go through therefore creating vitality. Biocatalyst on the anaerobic side of the MFC oxidizes natural substrates, for example, acetic acid derivation along these lines creating electrons and protons (Antonopolou et. al 2010). The protons are pulled in to the cathode by going through the PEM while the electrons go through the outside circuit (Rahimnejad et. al 2011). On the off chance that oxygen enters the anode chamber this will keep vitality from being created. (Rahimnejad et. al 2011) Types of Microbial Fuel Cells Single Chamber MFC Two Chambered MFC Â Â A solitary chamber MFC, an anaerobic chamber that is connected to a permeable cathode presented to air and is isolated by a PEM. Electrons are moved to the cathode to finish the circuit. A solitary chamber MFC doesn't require energizing with an oxidative media and air circulation makes the single chamber MFC increasingly adaptable and reasonable to arrangement because of the nonappearance of costly layers and cathodic chambers this makes adaptable application in wastewater treatment and force age. Figure 3: Single Chamber Microbial Fuel Cell A twofold chambered MFC This sort of MFC contains an anodic and cathodic chamber associated by a PEM that intercedes proton move from the anode to the cathode all while obstructing the dissemination of oxygen into the anode, this framework is commonly utilized for squander treatment and vitality age. Figure 4: outline of a twofold chamber microbial energy component Microorganisms Substrate Applications Escherichia coli Glucose, Sucrose Methylene blue required as a middle person Clostridium butyricum Starch, Glucose, Lactate, Molasses Fermentative bacterium Proteus mirabilis Glucose Utilizations Thionin as middle person Streptococcus lactis Glucose Middle person Ferric chelate complex Aeromonas hydrophila Acetic acid derivation Middle person less MFC Table 1: Microbes utilized in Microbial Fuel Cells With the assistance of microorganisms, Microbial Fuel Cells can change over synthetic vitality into power Current and future uses for Microbial energy components There are flow applications in which Microbial Fuel cells are included demonstrates it to be an ever-advancing innovation that utilizes microscopic organisms to produce power from squander and make hydrogen. By taking advantage of this recently unharnessed wellspring of intensity, perfect, manageable vitality can be delivered requiring little to no effort. Wastewater treatment Microbial Fuel Cells can be used to treat sewage water. MFCs can execute the microbes found in sewage. It has been demonstrated that MFC can diminish the measure of microorganisms present in wastewater by 80% (Liu 2004). The waste water is at first pre-rewarded to expel the poisons and non-biodegradable materials from the water. This procedure is considered testing as sewage water can be incredibly harmful and contaminated experiences broad treatment before MFC can be utilized to clean the water. High operational supportability and low material expenses are significant attributes for rewarding wastewater effectively (Wang et. Al 2012) Ocean Water Desalination Microbial Fuel Cells are equipped for delivering vitality yet at the level where we can expel salt from enormous measure of water. Notwithstanding, there is potential for such procedure to be cultivated, by utilizing an adjusted microbial power device would make desalination of ocean water conceivable without outside electrical sources [5]. Analysts tried the procedure of desalination by utilizing a desalination microbial energy component. This is very unique to the past power devices referenced as there is a third chamber present for the salt water in the middle of the two anodes. The procedure happens with the positive and negative particles being pulled in to the point of view anodes as the proton electron film expels the salt from the water leaving it new. Researchers recorded that salt evacuation was up to 90% effective nonetheless, higher expulsion efficiencies are expected to create grade A drinking water [5]. Figure 5: Desalination microbial energy units Hydrogen Production With the assistance of a Microbial energy unit, hydrogen can be delivered. This procedure requires an outer wellspring of capacity to change over the microscopic organisms into carbon dioxide and hydrogen gas (JD Coates). Protons are discharged by the anodic response and go through the PEM towards the cathode, this at that point consolidates with oxygen to shape water. Hydrogen made from the electrons and protons delivered by the microorganisms utilizing in a MFC can be hazardous temperature savvy (Liu et al). Force source-The entire thought behind the turn of events and headway of microbial energy unit advancements was principally founded on giving modest, open capacity to remote locales of on the planet like towns in Africa, where lion's share of the populace lives without the advantage of power (Doty, 2008). The utilization of custom made Microbial Fuel Cell in Africa is new, tests are being finished with fertilizer and earth which would be helpful for populaces in provincial zones where this can be as moderate as could be expected under the circumstances. The electrical flow created by a straightforward custom made MFC is sufficient to revive a phone battery, a significant correspondence and lighting device to rustic African people group. Endeavors are being made to make MFCs that can be developed from straightforward things that can be handily gained. Materials, for example, soil, compost, copper wire, cans, and graphite fabric are fundamental in making a basic MFC. End Microbial power devices have made a promising future for individuals and the planet we live on. The examination done as such far and with the applications that we have right now will help the decrease of our need to utilize petroleum derivatives and permit us to pick up vitality from squanders items, microscopic organisms ridden water, empower us to utilize recently salted water to drink, ranch with, this will incredibly profit third world nations and regions tormented with dry spell and give power to places that don't have any. Researchers can't use MFC innovation to change the world in a day however are taking a shot at approaches to help roll out an improvement a tiny bit at a time. M

America Attacked :: Essays Papers

America Attacked The United States of America has experienced pretty much every feeling in the book, yet we will always remember the occasions of September 11. Starting at now, examinations are occurring the country over. From Bacillus anthracis to the Al-Qaeda, the FBI and CIA appear to be confused with respect to where to look. The advancements of the story on Bacillus anthracis have not halted President Bush on his â€Å"Life Must Go On† discourses, however it Bacillus anthracis panics despite everything have residents in a craze. Step by step instructions to manage Bacillus anthracis, or fundamentally the psychological thought of â€Å"ohmigosh I can’t check my mail I may die† has its advantages and disadvantages since you can’t abstain from checking your mail for an incredible remainder, yet there is consistently that dread there. With respect to the new anecdote about the Al-Qaeda, what is supposed to be â€Å"Bin Laden’s Web of Terror†, we just know to such an extent concerning what the media is giving. From what I’ve realized, the Al-Qaeda is like the generalized â€Å"MAFIA†, where Bin Laden has a system of adherents everywhere throughout the world in 60 distinct nations, where he has support monetarily and support from the individuals who are a piece of his system. It is somewhat similar to if Bin Laden says â€Å"go†, there will be somebody there to react. It is terrifying to consider, truly, yet I accept the FBI needs to get going and let the individuals realize what is happening. What amount of a danger is there? How stressed should individuals be - particularly since the special seasons are practically around the bend? These are questions I might want to be replied. Organizations all around the globe are on an exciting ride at the present time, and no one knows when the ride is going to stop, or all the more significantly, how and where it will stop. For instance, will organizations be on the top or the base of the ride? A case of a re-started business that influences aircrafts is the Concorde. Since the accident of the Air France Concorde in the mid year of 2000, the planes haven’t flown. Presently, the arrival of the world’s quickest business planes are back in the skies, yet their solitary issue is, will there be individuals riding them? More than 50 million dollars has been spent on setting up the arrival of the Concorde, yet a few people are incredulous with respect to whether the business will progress admirably.

Value Of Responsible Tourism Tour Packages â€Myassignmenthelp.Com

Question: Examine About The Value Of Responsible Tourism Tour Packages? Answer: Introducation Extreme travel was propelled in the year 1991 in Sydney, Australia. It is Travel Company that organizes experience visits in and around Australia. The association unites similarly invested individuals as visit bunches who bond in the excursion and make the get-away a significant encounter. The organization is clear about the objective market: segment: 18-30 years; geographic: Australia; conduct: individuals who are searching for an undertaking trip; psychographic: individuals who are youthful on the most fundamental level and are searching for an awesome time (ultimate.travel, 2017). Extreme travel Individuals from all the world can be a piece of the gathering and experience the undertakings nature brings to the table in a capable and safe manner. The organization has a group of gifted and prepared individuals who make the movement experience far better, there uncommon visit pioneers, neighborhood aides and bolster team individuals who are responsible and committed to offer the clients an outing of their lifetime. The guided visit is loaded up with a few exercises which are going to keep the clients connected with and engaged all through the outing (ultimate.travel, 2017). Be that as it may, that doesnt mean the visitor don't get time to revive or unwind in the excursion. The organization ensures that the visit bundle is even so they can furnish the clients with an ideal get-away with in the spending plan. Be it the vehicle or the settlement the organization guarantees the clients to offer the best alternative with no additional compensation than the bundle itself. To ensure th e enthusiasm of the clients a wellbeing store office is additionally accessible where in the event of any unanticipated conditions of the outing being dropped or postponed. The organization comprehends the estimation of mindful the travel industry and subsequently the visit bundles incorporate a few insurances and moral approaches which characterize the companys vision to a feasible domain and improvement of the natural life and their living space. Manageability is one of the center rules that are trailed by the organization (ultimate.travel, 2017). Reference List: ultimate.travel. 2017.About Us. [online] Available at: https://www.ultimate.travel/about-us/[Accessed 17 Sep. 2017].

Crooks Diary Entry Of mice and Men Essay Example

Law breakers Diary Entry Of mice and Men Paper Gracious god. So much happened today; I dont recollect the last time I had such a great amount to manage in one night. I only sittin around, workin in my room, getting a charge out of the harmony and very of the night when I heard somebody at the entryway. It was Lennie, the new enormous person, askin about his damn little guys. What does he figure hes doing? Upsetting me from my day by day schedules. Be that as it may, I was feelin quite forlorn at that point, so I let him in. He came in and began talkin about his moronic hares and how hes going to have his very own farm with George, his little companion. Ha! What is this? Some sortta of joke? They dont even have the cash for it! Gosh hes such a nitwit, coming to somebody like me around evening time and simply yaking session how hes going to achieve is dream and pet bunnies. Hes nuts. Acts like hes a 5-year old child or somethin. In any case, at that point, the most abnormal thing occurred, I had another guest. It was the old swamper. At any rate it was somebody who has to some degree a cerebrum. Said to me that it must be ideal to have the entire space to myself. In the event that solitary he would comprehend what I like to have; Id preferably be in a room squeezed with 20 individuals over confronting 4 white dividers each night! We will compose a custom paper test on Crooks Diary Entry Of mice and Men explicitly for you for just $16.38 $13.9/page Request now We will compose a custom article test on Crooks Diary Entry Of mice and Men explicitly for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Recruit Writer We will compose a custom article test on Crooks Diary Entry Of mice and Men explicitly for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Recruit Writer Candy proceeded to state that he was a piece of Lennie and Georges meandered aimlessly about the fact that they are so near really succeeding, similar to it was truly going to occur. I couldnt accept the huge person was talking reality from the beginning! I cannot prevent myself from intuition, if these two individuals can converse with me like Im someone, living with them on their farm my turn my destiny, I will never again be separated! Out of nowhere, the way that my future could change into something better, something to anticipate, truly made me energized. Pictures of what I can achieve flushed into my brain, The idea of managing less of what I manage now is simply thrilling! At the point when Candy discussed having their own territory and living without the concern of losing a spot to live, food to eat, and really claiming property, my heart took off, that would truly be an extraordinary thought, my life truly could change! I cannot quit pondering it, how Lennie and George are so near accomplishing their objective, mine strength be conceivable as well! I could have in the event that I had my own property, I may gain more than what I acquire now, even raise a family, I could be a father thus much prospects. Curleys spouse showed up at my front entryway, the one that has huge amounts of cosmetics all over, which carried us three men to stun, I dont recall the last time this room was so packed! What inconvenience does she need now? With her here, I could envision the most noticeably awful occurring, us three being sacked from our occupations, is that what she needs nowI imagine that in one manner, me and Curleys spouse share for all intents and purpose is having nobody to speak with. In any case, she truly annoyed me when she utilized her situation in the farm to undermine my activity, that was not what I would do in the event that I needed to coexist with somebody or discover somebody to converse with. It was her flaw for not accepting that Curley didn't stall out into the machine, what have I done to merit those words that came out from her mouth? Who she call a nigger? That mean bitch that had no companions, she overlooked that she was in my room, what she doing coming in so late to a keeps an eye on room, needing to push every one of us into difficulty? Why cant she simply stay out of other people's affairs and leave every one of us to our tranquility? In any case, Im happy she reminded me, I nearly overlooked my idenity, who I am as a dark, how might I have even exposed the idea of finding some kind of purpose for existing outside? I completely disregarded myself and how these white individuals treat me, how might I live with them, we are from various universes, we can't live respectively in harmony, it will never occur. Beneficial thing I revealed to Lennie that I have adjusted my perspective to being a piece of their territory, god realizes what may occur on the off chance that I truly went to begin another existence with them! This evening was such an abnormal night, how could everybody be out of nowhere flat footed and conversed with me like I was someone to them, I havent had organization for an exceptionally prolonged stretch of time and Ive truly missed it a great deal. I truly need somebody to converse with ,to have the option to hear me out talk, I truly accept that being separated from everyone else for so long would truly make me insane by one way or another. The longing I have for a friend is driving me near being distraught! Be that as it may, I won't disregard my poise and who I am as a dark individual.

Why Students Should Choose School Admission Essay Examples?

Why Students Should Choose School Admission Essay Examples?Schools are increasingly using essay samples as part of their admission process. While there are many choices for essay writing in and out of the classroom, no two essays are the same. In addition to their content, the essay samples also vary. For this reason, your essay writing task becomes more complex than you might think.One of the most important factors to remember when preparing a school essay is the amount of time you have to work on it. Most schools require students to submit a computer-generated essay within a limited amount of time. Because of this, students must first choose an essay topic before they can begin working on it. While the topic is important, it is not the only thing you should consider.Students who are less experienced when it comes to writing an essay may feel overwhelmed by the sheer length of the sample essays they find online. While those with experience are more likely to be able to tackle them, it is not necessary to learn everything that you can about every topic. Instead, you should start your research by considering a variety of different topics to choose from.Before you begin brainstorming for an essay, it is helpful to think about your level of knowledge on the topic at hand. You should write a personal essay that includes information about yourself and your academic abilities. That way, your essay can show your personality, interests, and hobbies.Next, you should write a personal essay that emphasizes how much you want to go to the school. Start by stating why you want to attend, and give examples of times in your life when you wanted to attend the school. You should also express how it would be good to attend the school. By doing this, you will have prepared your essay sample and other documents for the admissions officers at the school you are considering.As a student, it is common for the school admissions officer to ask you about your extracurricular activities a nd other interests. These may include football, choir, or another club or group you may be involved in. By taking this extra time to demonstrate these interests in your school essay, you will make your case that you belong in the school.Finally, consider how your school essay relates to the other school essay samples that are available. By considering the other schools' essay samples, you will also have an idea of how to incorporate the new ideas you learned from others. Even if you have already finished the other samples, you may want to give the school admission essay examples a look-see.Your school essay should highlight your abilities and accomplishments. By starting your research early and choosing a topic you are familiar with, you will be better prepared for your essay. In addition, you should have plenty of resources available at your disposal.

Essay on Impact of War in “The Bonesetter’s Daughter”

Impact of War in â€Å"The Bonesetter’s Daughter† The Bonesetter’s Daughter is a very insightful story that explores the deep emotions and struggles that are experienced by most people from different cultures and backgrounds. The story has a sub-story embedded in it. The theme also revolves around many subplots. There are basically three main characters in the story, which are introduced to the readers in almost reverse chronological order. The first is Ruth, who is a Chinese born in America. The second is her mother LuLing, who was born in China, but later emigrated to America after the World War II. The third is Precious Antie who happens to be a bonesetter’s daughter. The novel’s name, therefore, derives from this character in the story. The Bonesetter’s Daughter is the fourth novel of its author, Amy Tan. Like the characters in her book, she is also a Chinese American born in the USA in the family of Chinese immigrants. Her stories reflect many of her own personal experiences of being raised in two different cultures. She brings out these elements very convincingly in this novel, as the cultural differences between Ruth and her mother LuLing. Ruth is more modern, but her mother still believes in dragons and caves. Only when Ruth reads her autobiography, does she begin to understand why her mother in such things. Ruth later finds in her mother’s autobiography that she lived in an orphanage and worked as a teacher during the World War II. She also learns that her mother went to extreme lengths to save the students in the orphanage from the Japanese soldiers and several other dangers. The autobiography opens a whole new world to Ruth and she has a much better understanding of her mother.

Taking a Look at Nephropathy - 1818 Words

I watched my grandfather struggle with Nephropathy, a kidney disease caused by diabetes. Large amounts of glucose make the kidneys channel an excessive amount of blood. All this makes it hard for the filters. After some years, the filters start to leak and all the useful protein is lost in the urine. Waste products then start to build up in the blood which then causes kidney failure. This becomes very serious because then a kidney transplant becomes necessary. I remember my grandfather was always in and out the hospital. He had been on the waiting list for a new kidney for many years. Because of his disease, he wasn’t able to do a lot of work. He only worked for about 3 hours a day just because he didn’t want to stay in the house all day. To keep him alive while waiting on the kidney transplant, the doctors gave my grandfather a lot of medicine to go home with. He had a whole container of medicine that he had to take every day. So with all that medication he had to take , it made it more difficult for him to do a lot of physical activities that he was able to do before he got sick. He finally got the transplant in 2012. Everything was going great for the first three months until he got an infection. My mother said the infection came from the surgery room. The infection got really bad after a few months and he passed away. Watching him struggle in pain for so many years while waiting on a kidney was painful. It was sad to know that he did all that waiting only to die afterShow MoreRelatedGluten, Wheat And Grain Products915 Words   |  4 Pagestests for antibodies specialized to celiac disease. Another test that can be done to diagnose celiac disease is a small intestinal biopsy which uses an EGD (esophagogastroduodenoscopy) to collect samples of the small intestine. Doctors then use this to look for signs of celiac disease. Lactose intolerance is caused by the large intestine’s inability to digest lactose, a type of sugar. When lactose is ingested, an enzyme called lactase in the large intestine works to break down lactose, for people whoRead MoreDiabetes : The Development Of Child Development And Hormonal Implications For Children1199 Words   |  5 Pagesfifty percent due to hormonal alterations; however, if not properly adjusted, young clients may experience â€Å"delayed menarche, impaired growth, menstrual irregularities,† and long-term diabetic complications such as neuropathy, retinopathy, and nephropathy (Trast, 2014). Therefore, they have to check their blood sugar at least 6-8 times a day, and the monitoring is even harder when they are aware that hormonal changes can occur at night. However, technology has progressively advanced, so young diabeticsRead MoreA Brief Note On Diabetes And Diabetes Mellitus1428 Words   |  6 Pages(polyuria), increased hunger (polyphagia), altere d sensation of pain, numbness, and tingling. There are other symptoms not specific to diabetes mellitus but may inform diagnosis, for example, headache, blurry vision, itchiness of the skin, fatigue, wounds taking longer to heal. The symptoms can also come early or delay depending on how the patient manages his or her condition. Type 1 diabetes symptoms develop faster (in a couple of weeks or months) while type 2 symptoms emerge a bit slower. At times, theyRead MoreDiabetes Mellitus : A Disorder That Affects The Amount Of Sugar2073 Words   |  9 Pagesnon-insulin dependent diabetes. Others like to include pre0diabetes in which blood glucose levels are too high to be named normal but not high enough to be called diabetes. (Diabetes Mellitus (DM) Merck Manual Home Edition, 2009-2014). Let’s take a look at type 1 diabetes or also known as insulin dependent. This is a chronic condition in which the pancreas produces little or no insulin, a hormone needed to allow sugar (glucose) to enter cell to produce energy. It is also an autoimmune disorder inRead MoreHigh Density Lipoprotein ( Ldl ) Levels Essay1612 Words   |  7 Pagesblood pressure, Insulin Resistance glucose intolerance, pro-inflammatory state, and prothrombotic state[4]. ATP III goes into much more detail about each of these risk factors to let you know exactly what to look for in each case. As you probably know, there is an obesity epidemic currently taking place in the United States. Being obese puts you at risk of all sorts of different types of diseases, but having abdominal obesity, also known as android obesity, is the most common precursor to other healthRead MoreBenefits Of Providing A Nursing Care2046 Words   |  9 PagesThrombosis and Rheumatoid Arthritis. Knowing patient’s cond ition, we should know that we are looking after a patient with polypharmacy, in this case ten different drugs that our client is taking on a regular basis. As a competent nurse, we should know the pathophysiology of patient’s co-morbidities, but also, we must look backwards into our client’s health history in order to understand their current clinical manifestations. Providing care on our ward, we will perform â€Å"Head to Toe Assessment† or obtainRead MoreDiabetic Foot Ulcer Teaching Project1821 Words   |  8 Pagescomponents. The macrovascular component relates to damage of large blood vessels and include heart attacks and strokes (WHO, 2013). The microvascular component is related to damage of small vessels and include retinopathy, nephropathy and neuropathy (WHO, 2013). While retinopathy and nephropathy lead to blindness and renal failure, respectively, our focus for this project is on the neuropathy and its role in the diabetic foot ulcers complication o f type II diabetes. Indeed, this paper, after the overviewRead MoreAn Analysis Of Roy s Four Concepts Of Environment Essay1777 Words   |  8 Pagesapproach it talks about how the patient communicates in his or her environment based on their historical position. This can include the patients culture such as, in the way that they talk or look at someone. For example, when talking with someone who is in a higher position like a doctor or nurse, the patient may look down and avoid eye contact. From my clinical experience there was an elderly patient who felt uncomfortable by my presence when doing the head to toe assessment because I was a male so IRead MoreMedical Studies Of Diabetes2444 Words   |  10 Pagestake the regimen that is most suitable for them. As mentioned earlier, too much insulin given at a time can cause a person to go in hypoglycemia. Hypoglycemia is way more fatal than increased glucose levels. The 30 year old female in our case was taking the Insulin Basal bolus that consisted of nov o rapid and glargine. There has been much concern over the efficacy of a basal regimen to a pre mixed insulin form. A study conducted by Mathieu et. al (2013) was done to see how the change in regimenRead MoreOrgan Trafficking2239 Words   |  9 Pageswhich account for 75% of the elicit organ trade (Ginzel, Arndt, Kraushaar, amp; Winter, 2012), a customer pays up to $204,000 for an all inclusive â€Å"kidney package† which covers all expenses including bribes made to officials to look the other way. If one is to take a look at this where we put the price paid by a customer at approximately at $200,000 and multiply by it by the very conservative estimate of 15,000 transactions this puts the annual revenue of traffickers at over $2billion. With a business

Summary The Emperor Trajan - 2012 Words

In his letter to the Emperor Trajan, dated 113, Pliny the Younger offers a glimpse into the life and practice of the early Christian community within the Roman province of Bithynia. This ancient document provides what David Music calls, one of the earliest post-New Testament references to Christian singing. Certainly, the Old Testament, and New Testament point to the practice as well, (2 Samuel 22:1-51, Matthew 26:30), indicate that the expression of song has consistently operated at the heart of the liturgical, communal, and devotional life of God s people. In fact, without the utterance of song, religious worship becomes sterile, in many respects, devoid of divine artistic expression. This journey of thought will seek to explore views on hymnology and song by looking in great detail firstly at Augustine s position with regard to music as seen in book (10.33.49 - 10.33.50) of the Confessions, secondly, at the introduction to his homily on Psalm 119:The Ascents of the Christian, and finally, I will make the claim that Augustine s experiences with Manichaeism and Neo-platonism had a tremendous influence on his philosophical and ideological position with regard to music. What becomes clear when studying Augustine s view of music is that Augustine s understanding of song as art greatly transcended the artistic by taking on meaningful spiritual dimensions. As a theologian, philosopher, prolific writer, and scholar Augustine Bishop of Hippo (354-430) left anShow MoreRelatedMovie And Scene Of The Movie Spartacus 1659 Words   |  7 Pagesfilm were either heavily romanticised or simply totally made up altogether. The popular 1960 film Spartacus, directed by Stanley Kubrick and named after the famous slave revolt leader of the same name, was no exception. Movie and Scene Presentation Summary The film was set in the same setting as the titular protagonist historically started the slave revolt: in Italy, and was especially set in the time of the Roman Empire. Spartacus, the slave, was sold off to a man named Batiatus, who had the slave

Comparing the Duty of the Physician in Dracula,...

Through close analysis of the respective physicians illustrated within Bram Stokers Dracula, Mary Shellys Frankenstein, and Oliver Sacks Awakenings, one is able to comment upon their respective duties. The duty of the doctor, as portrayed in these texts, can be seen to be highly varied and immensely diverse. Bram Stokers Dracula deals with the role and duty of the doctor, and with the relationship between them and their patient extensively. Stoker, from a medical family himself (his brothers were doctors), creates a very stereotypical male doctor/female patient scenario with Dr. Seward and Dr. Van Helsing aiding Lucy Westerna and Mina Harper. Of the two physicians however, Seward comes to illustrate the failings of†¦show more content†¦Even before his initial arrival to study Lucy, Van Helsing offers his eternal services. Van Helsing says By good fortune I can leave at once, with out wrong to any of those who have trusted me. Were fortune other, then it were bad for those who have trusted, for I come to my friend when he call me to aid those he holds dear.(122). Here we see Van Helsing express his loyalty to Dr. Seward, saying that he can come at once with out breaking any promises, but if he had to break a promise he would for the sake of Dr. Seward. Van Helsing exhibits veritable care and comfort to all parties when dealing with Lucys sickness. As his greeting to Lucy on his first visit Van Helsing articulated his charm by saying my dear young Miss, I have the so great pleasure because you are so much beloved. That is much, my dear, even were there that which I do not see.(123). A more than flattering quote which exemplifies Van Helsings true kind-heartedness and concern with Lucys comfort. Throughout Van Helsings care for Lucy, he repeatedly compliments her and treats her with the utmost respect, care and attention. In addition to just saying such pleasant words to Lucy, Van Helsing actually means them and proves so by saying she charm me, and for her, if not for you or disease, I come. Van Helsing illustrates his affection for Lucy once more, and explains that for her alone he would gladly part his schedule and come to her aid. When dealing with those who loved

Oedipus a Tragic Hero - 1516 Words

Oedipus A Tragic Hero English 102 Literature and Composition Summer B 2011 Terry Garofolo 22816762 APA Sophocles presented the world with Oedipus around 2500 years ago. Never-the-less, the story remains among the most riveting of all time. Unfortunately, today when we hear the mention of the name Oedipus we place negative connotations around it. Oedipus, after all, had an unnatural sexual relationship with his own mother! In actuality, however, this relationship emerged entirely innocently. Oedipus was not some misguided sexual pervert of an earlier time. He was, in fact, a man that was driven by a very high internal moral standard. It was that internal moral standard that ultimately entwined him in a sequence of events†¦show more content†¦The first part of the prophecy had thus been fulfilled despite Oedipus determination that it would not. It might be argued that Oedipus killing of his biological father was a result of inferior morals. In this time period, however, such a killing was viewed as reasonable, what any reasonable human being would have done under similar circumstances, and should not be used to disqualify Oedipus under Sophloles definition of tragic hero (Ades 358). This was not a murder for gain and neither was it a murder resulting from hatred. It was simply a socially acceptable means of settling a dispute. As was the case with the fulfillment of the first part of the prophecy, the fulfillment of the second part of the prophecy didnt occur either because of inferior morals on Oedipus part. Oedipus was welcomed into his birth country as a hero because he had killed the much feared Sphinx, the same Sphinx that the people of the country believed had murdered their king, Oedipus birth father. The Sphinx had been a killer himself. His favorite tactic was to prevent travelers from the kingdom unless they could answer the riddle of what moved on four legs in the morning, walked on two legs at noon and on three legs at night. Oedipus gave the correct answer of â€Å"man†. Man, after all crawled when he was an infant, walked upright through mostShow MoreRelatedOedipus As A Tragic Hero1506 Words   |  7 PagesA true hero does not merely wear a cape, but this individual possesses admirable characteristics. A hero inspires the people around him and he is honorable. Heroes influential individuals from fairytale stories and myths of a real-life hero. Yet, none of these influential people are perfect. The tragic hero is clearly defined by Aristotle as being a person of admirable character, yet completely human with noticeable flaws. Moreover, this individual is not exempt from suffering. In Sophocles’ tragicRead MoreIs Oedipus A Tragic Hero?1167 Words   |  5 Pages2014 Is Oedipus a tragic hero? Aristotle, Ancient Greek philosopher whom did a lot of philosophizing, he believed in a logical reality. Aristotle’s objective was to come up with a universal process of reasoning that would allow man to learn every imaginable thing about reality. The initial process involved describing objects based on their characteristics, states of being and actions. Aristotle once said A man doesn t become a hero until he can see the root of his own downfall†. Oedipus was a mythicalRead MoreOedipus As A Tragic Hero1724 Words   |  7 Pagesstory of Oedipus, Oedipus is considered a â€Å"Tragic Hero† because of the tragic fate and effect that he had upon his life. My definition of a tragedy is a great loss that has a unhappy ending to which concluded me to state that Oedipus falls under that category. Throughout the book, Oedipus is leading himself to his own destruction when trying to find the killer of the late King Laios. So when a journal article I found published by The John Hopkins University Press stated that a â€Å"tragic hero is a manRead MoreOedipus-a Tragic Hero706 Words   |  3 PagesRunning head: Oedipus-A Tragic Hero Research Paper ENGL 102: Literature and Composition) Fall 2015 Melinda Meeds L26683811 APA Outline Thesis: In Sophocles’ â€Å"Oedipus†, Oedipus is exemplified as a tragic hero according to Aristotle’s definition because his story appeals to the reader’s humanity in the way he maintains his strengths after inadvertently causing his own downfall. I. Oedipus A. The noble birth. B. Describe Oedipus’ character. II. Tragedy A. DescribeRead MoreOedipus the Tragic Hero1390 Words   |  6 PagesOedipus; The Tragic Hero In the Fourth Century BC, a famous philosopher named Aristotle wrote about the qualities that a tragic hero must possess. Ever since that time, there have been many examples of tragic heroes in literature. None of those characters, however, display the tragic hero traits quite as well as Oedipus, the main character from the play Oedipus Rex by Sophocles. Oedipus is, without a doubt, the absolute quintessence of a tragic hero. His example shines as clear as a sunny summerRead MoreOedipus, A Tragic Hero1648 Words   |  7 Pages Oedipus, a Tragic Hero Bob Livingston Liberty University â€Æ' Sophocles presented the world with Oedipus around 2500 years ago. Never-the-less, the story remains among the most riveting of all time. He was, in fact, a man that was driven by a very high internal moral standard. It was that internal moral standard that ultimately entwined him in a sequence of events and circumstances that placed him in the spousal relationship with his mother. Oedipus, in fact, can truly be regarded as a tragic heroRead MoreOedipus As A Tragic Hero1094 Words   |  5 PagesIn the play Oedipus the King, Oedipus struggles to accept the truth and lets his temper over power him. He can be displayed as a tragic hero. His refusal to accept the truth led to Oedipus’ down fall. A tragic hero, as defined by Aristotle, â€Å"is a literary character who makes a judgment error that inevitably leads to his/her own destruction.† Sophocles’ Oedipus exemplifies Aristotle’s definition of a tragic hero. In the play, Oedipus unknowingly has cursed the entire town of Thebes. He was cursedRead MoreOedipus, a Tragic Hero?2158 Words   |  9 PagesOedipus, a Tragic Hero? Elizabeth Howell English 102- B33 Professor Katie Robinson Liberty University October 12, 2012 Oedipus, a Tragic Hero? Thesis: Using Aristotle’s five different descriptions of a tragic hero, we will show that Oedipus in Oedipus the King is in fact a tragic hero and how his decisions led to his downfall. Outline: I. Introduction and Thesis Statement II. Is the character of noble birth? A. King of Thebes B. Real father was king III. Though the tragic heroRead MoreOedipus, A Tragic Hero1832 Words   |  8 Pagesmany others will likely fade away. Oedipus Rex is a tragic tale set in Ancient Greece. Greek thinker, Aristotle, said there were certain elements that would make a person qualified as a â€Å"tragic hero.† (Adade-Ywboah, Ahenkora Amankwah, 2012). We think of heroes being larger than life, possessing impeccable honor, integrity, strong leadership and having the higher moral ground. However, tragic heroes are different; they are imperfect and will inevitably face a tragic downfall. Per Aristotle, there areRead MoreOedipus As A Tragic Hero1445 Words   |  6 PagesAlthough not all who wander or deviate from the path are lost, some clearly are. When Oedipus, the eponymous character of Sophocles’ tragedy Oedipus Rex, first learns that he is destined to kill his father and marry his mother, he abandons his home intent on never returning in order to avoid meeting his fate. Unbeknownst to the tragic hero, before the curtain’s rise, the prophecy has already been fulfilled. Consequently, due to the underlying corruption in Thebes, the people are perishing of a plague

Sex Trafficking Is A Huge Global Health And Human Rights...

By the time you finish reading this paper nearly 23 children around the world will be victims of sex trafficking. Sex trafficking is a huge global health and human rights issue affecting roughly 152 countries around the world (Greenbaum Crawford-Jakubiak, 2015). The United Nations describes sex trafficking as â€Å"the recruitment, transportation, transfer, harboring, or receipt of persons, by means of the threat or use of force or other forms of coercion, of abduction, of fraud, of deception, of the abuse of power, or of a position of vulnerability or of the giving or receiving of payments or benefits to achieve the consent of a person having control over another person, for the purpose of exploitation. Exploitation shall include, at a minimum, the exploitation of the prostitution of others or other forms of sexual exploitation, forced labor or services, slavery or practices similar to slavery, servitude, and the removal of organs† (Greenbaum, J., Crawford-Jakubiak, 2015). The estimated number of victims vary greatly, but are said to range from 600,000 to 2.4 million annually (Miller, 2013), with roughly 100,000 annually just in the United States (Titchen, 2014). According to Miller (2013), the figures 600,000 to 2.4 million is thought to be grossly understated due to secrecy, and misclassification of victims (labeled as criminals and prostitutes, rather than victims). The United States is not only a source and transit country, but also considered to be the leadingShow MoreRelatedOne Significant Change That Has Occurred in the World Between 1900 and 2005. Explain the Impact This Change Has Made on Our Lives and Why It Is an Important Change.163893 Words   |  656 PagesLinda Shopes, eds., Oral History and Public Memories Tiffany Ruby Patterson, Zora Neale Hurston and a History of Southern Life Lisa M. Fine, The Story of Reo Joe: Work, Kin, and Community in Autotown, U.S.A. Van Gosse and Richard Moser, eds., The World the Sixties Made: Politics and Culture in Recent America Joanne Meyerowitz, ed., History and September 11th John McMillian and Paul Buhle, eds., The New Left Revisited David M. Scobey, Empire City: The Making and Meaning of the New York City Landscape Read MoreInternational Management67196 Words   |  269 PagesINTERNATIONAL MANAGEMENT: CULTURE, STRATEGY, AND BEHAVIOR, EIGHTH EDITION Published by McGraw-Hill, a business unit of The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 1221 Avenue of the Americas, New York, NY 10020. Copyright  © 2012 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Previous editions  © 2009, 2006, and 2003. No part of this publication may be reproduced or distributed in any form or by any means, or stored in a database or retrieval system, without the prior written consent of The McGraw-Hill Companies

Accounting Sustainability Reporting

Question: Discuss about theAccountingfor Sustainability Reporting. Answer: Introduction Creation of value is very significant for companies that can assist in maintaining effective stakeholder relationships. In order to obtain such objective, proper systems like Corporate Sustainability Reporting is required so that companies can measure or control their own activities to evaluate whether the requirements of stakeholders are adequately addressed. (Cairns, 2000) Besides, use of traditional corporate reporting is mainly described as public relations products instead of an effective measure to manage and control the performance of corporates. Therefore, sustainability reporting is not only an enhanced methodology than traditional corporate reporting but also a cost effective and beneficial approach that can measure environmental management of various processes (Perrini Tencati, 2006). It assumes a place of vital importance as it reflects the ability of the company in supporting the environment. Nevertheless, provision of more than financial information is very crucial to achieve enhanced corporate performance. Criticisms of Traditional Financial Reporting Due to various criticisms, traditional corporate reporting has now been disregarded by most of the companies. This is because such approach cannot supply material information that is both qualitative as well as quantitative in nature. Besides, these indicators can assist in establishing a kind of sustainability dashboard that surpasses the traditional financial information. As per Perrini Tencati (2006) traditional corporate reporting does not accommodate material information that can assist the stakeholders in their decision-making process. Besides, since corporate sustainability reporting takes into account both financial and non-financial information in lieu of the needs or requirements of stakeholders, it is a more enhanced methodology to manage and control the performance of corporates. Moreover, traditional corporate reporting is not capable of tracking and monitoring the overall performance of companies, as it cannot go beyond past-oriented financial data (Kalpan Norton, 200 4). On a whole, traditional corporate reporting cannot aggregate different management approaches like environmental reporting, social reporting, etc, into one comprehensive methodology. This is the key reason why there is an urgent requirement for a new system of measuring outcomes of companies based on the framework of stakeholders. Stakeholders are concerned for information from all around and hence, a new system will provide a better exposure (Cairns, 2000). Relevant Theories Behind Corporate Sustainability Reporting Since sustainability reporting can surpass traditional reporting in measuring corporate performance; it is more suitable for companies and stakeholders as a whole. However, it is not sufficient for corporates to get involved in CSR activities, but it is also relevant to make information about such activities available to stakeholders. The information about the activities needs to be reflected as it projects the duty of the company towards the environment and the role it played in the context of creating wealth (Perrini Tencati, 2006). This is the reason why the need for disclosure of non-financial information has significantly enhanced over the years, as it is viewed as an attempt to enhance transparency in relation to corporate affairs regarding environmental and social issues. The theories that are used to describe such CSR disclosure practices include stakeholder theory, legitimacy theory, etc. According to the stakeholder theory, the success of corporates is effectively influenc ed by the relationship of firms with their stakeholders. The stakeholders are the parties who are related and if they are not satisfied it will ultimately lead to a decline in the goodwill of the company (Albuquerque et. al, 2013). In addition, the capacity of a firm to create sustainable wealth can be determined by its relationships with the stakeholders. This theory is utilized to evaluate those groups to whom a firm must be liable. Such theory is a significant aspect of CSR wherein companies interact with the society with their own particular sets of requirements, anticipations, and demands (Kruger, 2015). This is the reason why a sustainability-oriented company is completely aware of its duties towards its several stakeholders and adopts approaches and measures to enhance its ecological and social performance. On the other hand, legitimacy theory provides that companies make ways to ensure they function within the prescribed norms and rules of their respective communities. This is the reason why competitive and financial success, effective utilization of natural resources and social legitimacy are intertwisted based on the objectives of the company. Moreover, this is also the reason why companies try to legitimize their affairs by getting involved in CSR activities in order to obtain societies approval (Kruger, 2015). Besides, such theory is directly associated with the stakeholder theory because the legitimacy of a firm relies on the maintenance of effective relationships with the stakeholders. In this way, the SERS (Sustainable Evaluation and Reporting System) assist an organization and its management to sustain relationships with the stakeholders, and cater to their information requirements, together with their issues regarding environmental and social matters (Perrini Tencati, 2006). Costs and Benefits According to studies, corporate sustainability can assist in opening the door to new and less costly sources of finance. In other words, sustainability efforts can signal general quality of firms and assist in minimizing its cost of equity. Therefore, leading to a variety of opportunities for the company. In addition, collecting information and framing a sustainability report can assist in developing new means of collection of data, and offers innovative ways for long-term development. It helps in tracking the progress of the company and ensures a better stakeholder relationship (Burritt et. al, 2002). Moreover, firms that produce sustainability reports have been witnessed to be performing well by releasing their reports, as it assist them in engaging with the stakeholders, international and local communities, and indulge in inclusive discourse that can result in benefitting the firms and its environment as a whole (Ballot et. al, 2006). Nevertheless, corporate sustainability reporti ng can not only assist in minimizing the firms cost, but also can also result in its positive differentiation, thereby resulting in an enhanced performance, competitive leverage, and enhanced trust and goodwill. Overall, the concept of sustainability is linked to performance, goodwill, and opportunities. If the practices of the company are strong it will lead to a better relationship and will cater to its goal. Inclusion of More than Financial Information in Annual Reports All such mentioned benefits can be attained only when companies provide more than financial information in their annual reports. This is because financial information can assist in strengthening the norms regarding financial accounting to ensure enhanced transparency levels and fairness in reporting activities, but in lieu of stakeholders viewpoint, such information is insufficient to cover every perspective of corporate performance. Financial information is surely relevant for accountants and other users, but qualitative information regarding the companys activities can result in an enhanced company performance. Even given the role of financial information, it is notable that in reality, such information relates to the past that assists in making decisions regarding the future (Sustainability reporting, 2012). Therefore, unless such past information is an appropriate predictor of future, the information can have limited value. Moreover, in the current scenario, due to impacts of thi ngs like innovations, changes in technology, changing inflation and tastes, etc, the past is more likely to be an unwanted predictor for the future. Thus, provision of more than financial information comes into context so that users can obtain every relevant detail regarding the companys activities, thereby attaining a chance of effective decision-making. Conclusion On a whole, sustainability reporting can assist in establishing trust and resilience by catering to the requirements of stakeholders. Moreover, the influence of stakeholders on the creation of business value and viability cannot be disregarded in the current scenario. Corporate sustainability reporting can not only endow infinite benefits to a company but also has an advantage over traditional corporate reporting that has become complicated with the increasing complexities in the current scenario (Investor sustainability, 2014). Besides, provision of more than financial information in the annual reports can play a key role in enhancing the corporate image and performance. References Albuquerque, R., Durnev, A Koskinen, Y 2013, Corporate social responsibility and firm risk: theory and empirical evidence, Boston University. Ballot, B., Heitger, D. L. Landes, C. E. 2006, The future of corporate sustainability reporting: A rapidly growing assurance opportunity, Journal of Accountancy, vol. 20, pp. 65-74 Burritt, RL, Hahn T, Schaltegger S 2002, Towards a comprehensive framework for environmental management accounting links between business actors and environmental management accounting tools, Australian Accounting Review vol. 12, no. 2, pp. 3950. Cairns, R. D. 2000, Sustainability accounting and green accounting, Environment and Development Economics, vol. 5, no. 1, pp. 49-54. Investor sustainability 2014, Do investors care about sustainability? Seven trends provide clues, viewed 25 April 2017 https://www.pwc.com./gx/en/issues/sustainability.jhtml. Kaplan RS, Norton DP. 2004. Strategy Maps: Converting Intangible Assets into Tangible Outcomes. Harvard Business School Press: Boston, MA. Kruger, P 2015, Corporate goodness and shareholder wealth, Journal of Financial economics, pp. 304-329 Perrini, F Tencati, A 2006, Sustainability and Stakeholder Management: the Need for New Corporate Performance Evaluation and Reporting Systems, Business Strategy and the Environment, vol. 15, pp. 296-308 Sustainability reporting 2012, Using sustainability to drive business innovation and growth 2012, viewed 25 April 2017 https://www.deloitte.com/view/en_IN/in/index.htm

Routines of Decision Making

Question: Discuss about the Routines of Decision Making. Answer: Introduction Consumer buying behaviour is an important concept for marketing purposes. It is a subjective topic that needs careful analysis and study. Buying behaviour differs from person to person based on the perception of values for a person. Various factors determine the buying behaviour of a person. Generally, consumers purchase typical products for satisfaction of wants and demands. These types of consumers are known as typical consumers. However, there are exceptions to every phenomenon. There are customers that purchase non-typical products (Xu, 2015). These are non-typical consumers that purchase uncommon and rare products based on their psychology and perception of value. These consumers are usually labelled as brand fanatic, early adopter, rebel, visionary resourceful etc. There are different factors that influence their buying behaviour. The report sheds critical light on the buying behaviour of a non-typical customer who indulges in the purchase of non-typical product. The purpose of the report is to shed critical light on the psychology and perception of value to the person and the factors that contribute to the buying behaviour of such customers. Profile of the subject The name of the chosen consumer is Liam Plunkett. He is 25 years old and the gender of the consumer is male. Liam Plunkett works as a teacher at Melbourne Grammar school. He is a postgraduate in the commerce and has successfully completed its masters in education. The chosen customer lives in Melbourne, Victoria and originally hails from Weyden Priors in Upper Wessex, England. Liam Plunkett has been living in Melbourne for the last 15 years. He has pursued his education from Camberwell High school and University of Melbourne. The hobby of Liam is collecting vintage articles. A special quality of Liam that separates him from other ordinary customers is the fascination and affinity to collect vintage products. He derives great pleasure and bliss in having a collection of vintage and rare products. A tendency of his buying behaviour is based on this fact. A major portion of the income of the customer is spent on buying G.I -Joes. The feature that separates him from the rest is that purc hase of toys and the fascination to collect vintage products is not a common tendency among adults and people of his age category. Typical customers spent their income on products they demand and want. Typical products are food, clothing, electronic gadgets, accessories etc. However, the affinity and the inclination to purchase items like toys in adults is a rare phenomenon, which certainly requires analysis and evaluation, in order to understand the psychology behind such occurrence. Liam can be categorized as a person who does not belong to the common crowd. His perception and outlook towards things is very different compared to others. His outlook and views on different subject matters is different, innovative and to an extent strange. His passion and hobbies are different and unique. This has a major bearing on his buying behaviour. A majority part of his income is spent on unique products. These qualities make Liam a non-typical consumer and person. Features of the product The chosen product of the customer is G.I Joe toys. As per the communication and interview with the chosen customer Liam Plunkett, it was observed that he spent a significant portion of money on G.I Joes and vintage toys. The customer had a special fantasy and inclination towards this product and it was observed that he had a huge collection of such toys. One fact that could be observed was the brand fascination towards G.I Joe and his passion towards collection of toys makes him buy this product. G.I Joes are action figure toys produced by the trademark company G.I Joe. The product is based on the comic series G.I Joes. The products represent the U.S armed forces. These products have various features and the product line comprises of toy figures ranging from 9.5 cm and follows the comic series (Yojoe.com, 2016). The toy figures comprises of US armed forces like US police, US army, US navy and US pilot, with a variety of other assistant fighters. As per the theme of the comic, it can be seen that the villains of the comic series are also a part of the product line. These toy figures are a successful product line of the company. The costumes of these toy figures are as per the costume of the character of the comics. These costumes make these toy figures very attractive and unique. The size of the products is appropriate, about 9.5 com size so the handling of these products is easy. Utility of the product to the customer As per conversation with the customer, it was observed that the product provided significant value to the customer. It has to be noted that customer satisfaction and customer buying behaviour is great dependent on the product value to the customer. Such benefit could be materialistic, while some could be psychological. In the case of the customer, the product provided great utility to the customers, and the product value was psychological. Liam is an avid reader and is a great fan of the G.I Joe comic series. He has followed every series of the comic and derived great pleasure from it. As a child he was hooked to the comic series and his mind drew imaginary parabolas and conjured up visions, which were influenced by the comic series. Thus, it can establish and explain the level of addiction and affinity he had towards the comic series. He has maintained the comics even till date and reads them in his leisure time. Liam is a gifted sketch artist and even sketches these items on the ca nvas. For Liam was not only limited to the comic series and it could be seen that he has deep and great love for the G.I Joe toy products. He has a impressive collection of the G.I Joe toy figures, which comprises of the majority of the characters that are in the comic series. For Liam, the collection of toy figures provides him immense joy. The collection is a product of his immense passion for the toys. He embarks on maintaining a complete collection of the toy figures since it satisfies his passion and provides him joy with such collection of the toys. The biggest passion of Liam is maintaining collection of G. I Joes toy figures and vintage toys. Thus, the consumption pattern of Lim helps in accomplishing his goal for maintaining the collection of G.I Joes. Customer decision making process Customer decision making process is an important concept that explains how customers plan to spend their income on the satisfaction of their demands and needs. Customer decision making process explains the various stages, which determines the customer buying behaviour. The five values influencing the customer buying behaviour is an important model that describes the customer buying behaviour. According to this model, there are five stages that is involved in the decision making process for the customers (Tukej Golob Podnar, 2013). The five stages are described below: Recognition of demands and needs The first stage in the decision making process is the realisation and recognition of the needs and wants for a customer. Firstly, a customer needs to recognize and realise a specific demands, which will satisfy the wants and desires of the customers. There has to be a specific lag between the actual situation of the customers and the desired and the ideal situation. This is an important fact in this case since it will determine what the customer wants to buy. It has to be noted a customer will only purchase an item only if there is a need and desire to buy a product. If there is want and need, there will be demand. The arousal of wants and desires could be triggered by two factors. These are internal stimuli and external stimuli. Internal stimuli refer to the psychological element that triggered the want and desire of product. For example, need for food and water is internal stimuli. External stimuli refer to external factors like advertisement and brand image of a product. Maslow Hierarchy of needs refers to various types of needs that humans want. These needs are : Psychological needs Safety needs Social needs Need of love Self actualization needs Maslows hierarchy of needs explains the phenomenon as to how the needs and wants of human beings change from one level to another depending on their level of intensity of the needs and wants. It is a proven fact that human wants and needs are insatiable and never ending (Liu Han 2013). Seeking of information The second stage in customer decision making process is the seeking for information. Once the need and want is recognized, it becomes important that the solution to satisfy the needs and wants has to be recognized. A customer will require solutions to satisfy the needs and wants. For this purpose, a customer will need solutions for this. The information could be obtained internally and at the same time, the information can be secured from external sources. The internal sources refer to the fact the information can be secured from the memory and experience of the customer and external information could be advertisement and word to mouth stuff (Glimcher and Fehr, 2013). Therefore, the second stage pertains to the seeking of information or solution for satisfying wants and needs for a person. Assessment for different options After getting necessary information for satisfaction of the needs and wants, a customer will try to juggle with the various options that are at the disposal. A customer will try to evaluate and assess the various options that a customer could use (Betsch Haberstroh, 2014). A customer will try to avail to the best possible option. The best possible option for a customer will be able to satisfy the needs and wants of the customer in the best way. Thus, evaluation and assessment of options is the third stage in the customer decision making process. Purchase Purchasing of products is the fourth stage in the customer decision making process. After the evaluation process, a customer will require to make real purchase of products. This will help to satisfy the needs and wants of a customer. The purchase decision will be based on the product and brand that the customer wants (Cina, 2013). The purchase decision will be influenced by the information and the evaluation of the information that a customer has assessed in the prior stages. Post-purchase emotions In the post purchase stage, a customer will evaluate his satisfaction and utility that was derived from the product. Product utility and brand reputation plays major role in this process. This is the fifth and the final stage in the customer decision making process. A customer will try to evaluate the fact that if the product was able to help the customer in accomplishing the goals and objectives of the customers. This will play a major factor in the recurrence of the demand of the product in future. The level of satisfaction will be the deciding factor in the demand of the product or brand loyalty (Solomon, 2014). The expected value and the actual value are compared and on the basis of this, the satisfaction level will be determined. This will determine the product loyalty and the brand loyalty that a customer will have towards a product or a brand. In the case of Liam, it can be seen the post purchase behaviour plays a major role in his buying behaviour. The passion of Liam, which is to collect G.I Joes and other vintage toys are satisfied with the purchase of the toy figures. The expected level of value surpasses his actual value and thus, his satisfaction level since it helps him to accomplish his goals and objectives, which he intends to fulfil from the purchase. Consumption process As per the interview with Liam, the consumption pattern is explicitly seen. The demands and needs of Liam occur when there are new supplies of the toy figures in the nearest retail toy shop. The G.I Joes toy figures have gone through various stages of change in design and structure. More advanced versions of the toy figures have been released based on the latest movies made on G.I Joes. Therefore, his demand and need for the product rises when there are new supplies or launch of new and advanced products in the market. Liam purchases the toy figures from the nearest retail toy shop that deals exclusively in these toy figures and other vintage toys. The toy shop is named Little Corner, which is located in Melbourne. Liam is able to purchase all his requirements from these shops and add to his G.I Joes galore. The shop keeps upgrading its stocks with new and latest collection of toys, especially in respect of G.I Joes. G.I. Joes shares his toys with his nieces and nephews. Resources of the consumer Resources are the most influential factors when it comes to consumption processes. In this case, it has to be kept in mind that a consumer will have to assess and evaluate the resources that will play an important role in buying behaviour of the consumers. As per the conversation with the consumers, it was seen that the resources played an important role in the buying behaviour and decision making process. Time and money were an important factor for Liam in this case. The toy shop from where Liam purchased these products where in close proximity to his house. It took him 10-15 minutes by foot to travel to the shop to make his purchases. Thus, one thing that worked in favour of Liam was that he was able to save time and money in regards of conveyance and it was easy for him to travel to shop to make the purchases. Another factor that worked in the favour of Liam regarding the buying behaviour was the nominal and appropriate price. Even though, Liam had brand loyalty towards G.I Joes, the prices of the toy figures were nominal, which increased the satisfaction level for him and made it easier for him to fulfil his needs and demands and accomplish his satisfaction level in the process. Consumers perception about the product On interviewing Liam, his views and perceptions about the product were exposed and highlighted. The nature and behaviour of Liam has a lot to do with this fact. One of the facts is that he is an introvert person and stays aloof from social community. Liam is a creative person and dwells in his own imaginary world and as result normal products and items do not appeal much to him or satisfy his wants or desires. Another fact that can be noticed is that Liam feels very connected to the comic series and the movies series made on it. In such circumstances, the G.I Joes are a means to feed his imagination. With the toy figures, he can use his imagination and relive it with the toys. These toys are his source of entertainment during his leisure time. It helps him to feel the excitement with the toy figures. It helps him to relive the excitement that he feels while reading the comic series or while watching the movies. The toy figures are a vital source of satisfaction of his passion to main tain his passion of collecting vintage toys. The toys figures are his source of company in his time of leisure and allow him to secure bliss and serenity. Positive factors that encourage the buying behaviour of the customer Some of the positive factors that encourage the buying behaviour of Liam are: Psychological factors One of the positive facts that encourage Liam in his buying behaviour is the mental joy and serenity that he derives from such collection of the toy figures. These are psychological factors that have a deep and a positive impact on him. These toy figure serve as a major source of happiness for him. It gave him immense bliss and satisfaction, especially when he saw the collection of the toy figures increase. It also provided him the escape from the monotonous routine of life. The post purchase experience for him regarding these toys is positive and it influences him to buy to more of these toy figures since it satisfies his needs and wants and his satisfaction level is high from such products. Physical factors Physical factors relate to physical features of a product. The physical appearance of the product has deep impact on a consumer. It can be seen that in the case of Liam, the appearance of G.I Joes has a deep and strong effect on him. The G.I Joes are in appropriate in size around 9.5 cm and with attractive look and costumes, which grabs the attention of Liam. It makes his collection of toys look attractive and it decorates the display section of these toys at home. The appropriate size makes it portable and he can carry it from place to place without much hassle. The attractive and style make it another reason for him to increase his purchases of the toy figure and at the same time it positively influences his purchasing behaviour. Sweet memories of the consumer relating to the product As per the conversation with Liam, it was seen that another factor that influenced his buying behaviour was the nostalgia factor. According to Liam, there were sweet memories related to the product. These toys provided him with memories of his childhood when he read the comic series of the G.I Joes and the excitement he had when he purchased G.I Joes for the first time. As per his statement, he felt the same thrill and excitement when he purchased the toy figures. Same emotions and feelings were triggered when he purchases these products. The quotient of nostalgia is high for him regarding the purchasing and the satisfaction derived from the toys. The reminiscence of his childhood days could be felt by him. The sweet memories and the happy moments relating to the G.I Joes have a special place in the heart of Liam. It encouraged him to purchase more of such products and held a special place in the heart of Liam. It revived his days of reading G.I Joes comic and the movies watched by h im. Special connection with the brand One fact that needs to be noted is that Liam is a gritty person. He has a strong will power and has a great determination level. He took great interest in martial arts and sports in his school days. G.I Joes comic series were based on action and thrill. The toy figures were of US armed forces and depicted action and thrill. Therefore, the brand portrays action and thrill. The toy figures are armed forces and depict the concept of the brand, which is based on action, grit, determination and strong will power that are features of the characters of the G.I Joes. Liam feels a connection with the brand based on these lines. He finds congruency between his ideal and the concept of the brand. This fact draws him closer to the brand and increases his brand loyalty and product loyalty. Recommendations Some of the recommendations that were given to Liam during the conversations were: Researching on better substitutes to G.I Joes Researching on better substitutes that could provide increased and better satisfaction level to him was one of the recommendations given to him. It was suggested that he should inspect about different products that could be close substitutes to these toy figures, which could provide him higher level of satisfaction and contentment with the product. It might also give him greater product value and might also provide a better source of entertainment and leisure for him. Researching in different competitor Competitors like Funskool have brand image and have good product portfolio. Therefore, if he inspected different competitors and inspected their product, it might help him to obtain greater satisfaction. Reflection There were quite a few points that I took note after my conversation with Liam. One of the things that I learnt is that customer buying behaviour and customer decision making process is a subjective view. The mental faculties play a vital in the decision making process of a customer. My personal view is that Liam is a non-typical customer and is a person who is creative and unconventional. He does not think like normal people and has great imagination level. His demands and needs do not pertain to common products. G.I. Joes are a famous brand with attractive product line. G. I Joes are well known and reputed throughout the world. From the interview, I learnt that Liam has specific parameters and metrics for utility and satisfaction from the product. His perception about product value is different and unique. His psychology is the fundamental point that determines his satisfaction and content level from a product level. Resources also play a major role regarding customer decision maki ng process. Price and time are the two main and fundamental pillars regarding customer decision making process. Nostalgia and memories play a major in the buying behaviour of Liam. He has unique perceptions about the product and his nature and passion play and important role in creating perceptions about product and product value. The brand slogan and the concept of a brand play a vital role in determining the demand and desire of a product. The concept of G.I Joes finds congruency with the ideals and outlook of Liam. This also influences his decision. Features of a product also influences customer buying behavior and what I saw was that there were certain positive features of the toy figures that induced Liam in buying these products. Bibliography Betsch, T., Haberstroh, S. (Eds.). (2014).The routines of decision making. Psychology Press. Bruner II, G. C., Pomazal, R. J. (2013). Problem recognition: The crucial first stage of the consumer decision process.Journal of Consumer Marketing. Cina, C. (2013). Creating an effective customer satisfaction program.Journal of Consumer Marketing. Glimcher, P.W. and Fehr, E. eds., 2013.Neuroeconomics: Decision making and the brain. Academic Press. Liu, H., Han, L. (2013, December). The Beauty of the Transcending of the Humanity--Research on Maslows Self-actualization Theory. In2013 International Conference on Advances in Social Science, Humanities, and Management (ASSHM-13). Atlantis Press. Solomon, M. R. (2014).Consumer behavior: Buying, having, and being. Engelwood Cliffs, NJ: prentice Hall. Sun, K. A., Kim, D. Y. (2013). Does customer satisfaction increase firm performance? An application of American Customer Satisfaction Index (ACSI).International Journal of Hospitality Management,35, 68-77. Tukej, U., Golob, U., Podnar, K. (2013). The role of consumerbrand identification in building brand relationships.Journal of business research,66(1), 53-59. Xu, Z. (2015).Uncertain multi-attribute decision making: Methods and applications. Springer. Yojoe.com. (2016).G.I. Joe Action Figure Database - YoJoe.com. [online] Available at: https://www.yojoe.com/ [Accessed 10 Aug. 2016].

Sample Essay Tips - Get Hired by a Tutor With a Good Sample Essay

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Rise of Russian Business Elite Essay Example

Rise of Russian Business Elite Essay Communist and Post-Communist Studies 38 (2005) 293e307 www. elsevier. com/locate/postcomstud The rise of the Russian business elite Olga Kryshtanovskaya a, Stephen White b,* a Institute of Sociology, Russian Academy of Sciences, Moscow, Russia b Department of Politics, University of Glasgow, Glasgow, UK Available online 24 August 2005 Abstract The early 1990s saw the formation of a new group of Russian property owners, often derivative of the late Soviet nomenklatura. The richest and most in? uential were known as oligarchs, and they established a dominant position in the later years of the Yeltsin presidency. Only 15% of the 1993 business elite still retained their position by 2001, after the 1998 devaluation of the currency. Those who took their place were younger, less metropolitan, better educated and more likely to have a background in government, including many who had enjoyed ministerial status. The new business elite is less personally ambitious, but its political in? uence is no less considerable and its representation in decision-making bodies has more than doubled over the post-communist period. The logic of development is towards a concentration of economic power in the hands of 20e25 large conglomerates in a politically subordinate association with government, along South Korean lines. O 2005 Published by Elsevier Ltd on behalf of The Regents of the University of California. Keywords: Business; Elite; Oligarchy; Russia Introduction The Soviet system allowed di? erences of income and private accumulations of wealth. But it did not permit the private ownership of factories and farms, or even of * Corresponding author. Tel. : C44 141 330 5352; fax: C44 141 330 5071. E-mail address: s. [emailprotected] gla. ac. uk (S. White). 967-067X/$ see front matter O 2005 Published by Elsevier Ltd on behalf of The Regents of the University of California. doi:10. 1016/j. postcomstud. 2005. 06. 002 294 O. Kryshtanovskaya, S. White / Communist and Post-Communist Studies 38 (2005) 293e307 small businesses; living o? the labour of others was ‘exploitation’, and a criminal o? ence . These restrictions were being relaxed even before the end of communist rule, and a central feature of the policies that were followed under Boris Yeltsin after his election as Russia’s ? rst president in the summer of 1991 was the shift of productive resources from the state to private individuals. We must’, Yeltsin insisted, ‘provide economic freedom, lift all barriers to the freedom of enterprises and of entrepreneurship and give people the opportunity to work and to receive as much as they can, casting o? all bureaucratic constraints’ (Yeltsin, 1992: p. 6). In line with these policies, successive programmes of privatisation transferred state property into private hands; income di? erentials widened rapidly; and at the top, a new group of super-rich emerged, whose assets commanded respect not just within Russia itself but internationally. We will write a custom essay sample on Rise of Russian Business Elite specifically for you for only $16.38 $13.9/page Order now We will write a custom essay sample on Rise of Russian Business Elite specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer We will write a custom essay sample on Rise of Russian Business Elite specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer They became known as the ‘oligarchs’, with resources that typically combined banking, sections of industry and the mass media. 1 There were 15 of these wealthy magnates, and every Russian knew their names: Rem Vyakhirev, Boris Berezovsky, Vladimir Gusinsky, Vagit Alekperov, Vladimir Potanin, Mikhail Fridman, Mikhail Khodorkovsky and others. For 3 years, from 1995 to 1998, their power and their ratings rose steadily. Within government itself they had their ‘own’ ministers, o? cials and deputies. Berezovsky claimed personally to have secured the re-election of Boris Yeltsin in 1996 through the media campaign he had sponsored (Financial Times 1 November 1996: p. 17). He was known to be a member of the ‘Family’, the inner group around Yeltsin’s younger daughter who appeared to exercise decisive in? uence in the presidential court. Indeed it began to appear as if the state itself had been ‘privatised’, and that all important decisions were being taken by a small group of ? nancial magnates. It was certainly true that many of the country’s key positions were occupied by creatures of the major corporations, and that Duma parties were ? ling their foreign accounts by pushing through the kind of agreements the oil barons found most advantageous; some even did well out of the Chechen war. Who, asked analysts, really ruled the countrydpoliticians or businessmen? The crisis of August 1998, when Russia defaulted on its international debts and the rouble was in e? ect devalued, had profound e? ects throughout Russian public life, and no less upon its social structure. Some of the oligarchs were ruined (including Vladimir Vinogradov of Inkombank and Alexander Smolensky of SBSAgro); a few withdrew from public life, and others sought refuge abroad. Equally, There is already a considerable literature. In English, see for instance Khlebnikov (2000), Silverman and Yanowitch (2000), Rutland (2001), Ho? man (2002), and de Vries et al. (2004). In Russian, see Kukolev (1995a, b, 1996), Kryshtanovskaya (1996, 2002a, b) (on which we have drawn), Pappe (2000), and Mukhin (2001, 2004). The research that is reported in this paper was assisted by the Economic and Social Research Council under grant R000220127 in association with the Ministry of Defence under grant JGC902. Research on Russian business leaders has been conducted in the Elites Department of the Institute of Sociology of the Russian Academy of Sciences on the basis of a consistent methodology since 1993. In each case, an expert survey is used to identify a number of named members of the business elite (in 1993 there were 115 such names, and in 2001 there were 119); in a second stage, the biographies of these entrepreneurs are subjected to a more detailed analysis on the basis of interview as well as published data. 1 O. Kryshtanovskaya, S. White / Communist and Post-Communist Studies 38 (2005) 293e307 295 here were changes in the relationship between government and the business elite, particularly after the election of Vladimir Putin as president in March 2000, as the regime began to pursue a policy of ‘equal distancing’ towards them. Putin, indeed, had promised that any ‘power-hungry’ oligarchs would ‘cease to exist as a class’ (Segodnya 20 March 20 00: p. 1). But what did this mean? The beginning of a struggle by the state with the oligarchy as a whole, or just with individual oligarchs? And did this mean that private business was beginning to play a smaller role in Russian politics, or, on the contrary, that its power had increased? In what follows we look ? rst at the emergence of the business elite, and then at the structural changes that have followed the collapse of the currency. We argue that over the whole period there has been a renegotiation, but not a dissolution, of the interpenetration of business and government that de? nes an oligarchy. Identifying the business elite We de? ne the business elite as the top echelon of entrepreneurs, who thanks to their ? nancial and economic resources have a signi? cant in? uence on the taking of decisions of national importance. The business elite, for our purposes, are a much more restricted group than the country’s major businessmen, including the largest shareholders (and sometimes top managers) of the leading enterprises and banks. The owners of some Russian corporations prefer to keep their distance from politics, although the scale of their business may be very substantial. And there are others for whom politics may be their main activity. Corporations of the ? rst kind can have considerable in? uence on the national economy; corporations of the second type have more in? uence on political decision-makers, and their role in the economy itself may not be signi? ant. In other words, the possession of substantial capital is a necessary but not su? cient criterion for membership of the business elite. 2 At a certain stage in the Russian reforms the business elite could have been regarded as a part of the ruling group of the society, a result not just of the resources they controlled and their degree of in? uence, but also of their origins. The ‘Komsomol economy’ in which the current business elite originated was a creation of the Soviet nomenklatura, which became the basis for the formation of a Russian property-owning class (Mawdsley and White, 2000: pp. 95e299; Martynova, 2001: ch. 4). The relative youth of individual members of the business elite in these early Our de? nition is close to that of other scholars. For the Russian Sociological Dictionary, for instance, the ‘economic elite’ should be understood as the ‘people who control the main ? nancial-economic structures of a country independent of judicial forms of ownership’; they may be divided into the directors of state enterprises, and the ‘business elite’ proper (Osipov, 1998 p. 638). For Ashin and colleagues, the business elite is the ‘top stratum of the entrepreneurial-? ancial group of the society’ (Ashin et al. , 1999: p. 294). Zaslavskaya de? nes à ¢â‚¬Ëœoligarchs’ as ‘not only owners, but also authorised executives and those who hold signi? cant numbers of shares of the major national and international corporations, holdings and industrial-? nancial groups’ (Zaslavskaya, 2004: p. 370). There has been considerable controversy in Russian sociology about de? nitions of this kind: see for instance Toshchenko (1999). 2 296 O. Kryshtanovskaya, S. White / Communist and Post-Communist Studies 38 (2005) 293e307 eform years should not mislead us: the nomenklatura exchanged power for property, without necessarily engaging themselves in commercial activities. For the conduct of business of this kind they recruited younger associates, who were able to make use of government revenues to support their commercial initiatives. These younger associates were recruited from the party’s ‘reserve’, the Komsomol, who represented the lower level of the party-state bureaucracy in the Soviet period. Both before and after the crisis of 1998 there was a fairly substantial group of people who had a noticeable in? ence on public policy, thanks to their ? nancial resources. Their money gave them control of mass communications, the ability to fund election campaigns, assist parties and ‘purchase’ deputies, and to lobby government directly. Russia was not unusual in these respects: in the early twentieth century Michels had already formulated his ‘iron law of oligarchy’ according to which a democracy, in order to preserve itself and achieve a degree of stability, is obliged to separate out a more active minority element, or elite. For this reason, according to Michels (1959: p. 7), democracy inevitably turned into oligarchy. Writing subsequently, Miriam Beard claimed that the opportunity to achieve power was at the same time an opportunity to acquire wealth, since there were no obstacles with society that prevent the rich acquiring power for instance, through their ability to spend at election time (Beard, 1938: p. 166). Oligarchy may be de? ned as a state formation in which the major owners have not only economic power, but also enormous political in? uence. They take part in the formation of government and at the same time receive privileges from government, on which their wellbeing is dependent. An oligarchy is based on the interaction of two elite groups: the political ‘establishment’, which is ? nanced by big business and provide it with access to the most pro? table forms of entrepreneurship, and businessmen themselves. The interpenetration of power and property is expressed in the constant bargaining that takes place between both sets of actors, including the ? ? ? lling of key positions. Businessmen bring their proteges into government, and politicians after their resignation ? nd refuge in private corporations, bringing with them as a form of capital their wide network of contacts. In an oligarchic state the distance between state power and big business is minimal: it is a narrow circle in which everyone knows everyone else (Kryshtanovskaya, 1996). A de? nition of oligarchy of this kind is close but not quite identical to the one that was most widely employed in the Russian press during the 1990s, in which 10e15 businessmen were regularly named in this capacity. Unlike journalists, for whom a situational and individual analysis is important, the social scienti? c approach is a di? erent one: the oligarchy is considered as a social group whose personal composition has no particular signi? ance other than as a basis for constructing the sample to be examined. For these purposes the oligarchy is faceless, and not dependent on the replacement of one name by anotherda Gusinsky, for instance, by an Abramovich. What is at issue is not a list of the individually important, but the social relationship between the two groups who continue to constitute the Russian elite: politicians and businessmen. Accordingly, the downfall of individual oligarchs may represent not the weakening, but the strengthening of the oligarchy as a larger entity. O. Kryshtanovskaya, S. White / Communist and Post-Communist Studies 38 (2005) 293e307 297 The origins of the business elite Russia’s developing bourgeoisie has been the object of close attention over the entire post-communist period (for the use of this term see Gill, 1998). But interest was at its highest point immediately before the August 1998 crisis when it seemed that the country was being run, not by a disorganised elite under the guidance of a decrepit president, but by a small group of nouveau-riche tycoons. These were the ‘real government of Russia’, in the view of the Financial Times (K’eza, 1997: p. 98). The sociologist Tat’yana Zaslavskaya (1997: p. 54) described them as a ‘renewed oligarchy’ made up of the ‘most competent or fortunate members of the nomenklatura’, with no less power and a good deal more wealth than their Soviet predecessors. Just seven of them, according to Berezovsky himself, controlled half of the entire Russian eco nomy (Financial Times 1 November 1996: p. 17). The in? uence of this small group of Moscow businessmen steadily increased at the same time as the state itself began to disintegrate, and the country’s economic position deteriorated further. Russia’s oligarchy received an important stimulus in 1995 when the government decided to give private business the shares of major enterprises in exchange for their ? nancial support (Freeland, 2000). The debt auctions were a Rubicon separating two stages in the formation of the business elite. Up to this point the business elite consisted of ? nanciers who had enormous in? uence in the political world, but their role in the Russian economy was not particularly signi? cant. There was not much incentive to invest in industries that needed extensive modernisation before they could start to yield a pro? . After the Russian government had approved the principle of debt auctions major ? nanciers were able to invest their money more advantageously, strengthening their position in politics and in the economy. In this way, the owners of the banks that were allowed to engage in these activities in the mid-1990s became a group with genuine, rather than virtual economic power. Now their political authority was determined not by their connections in the corridors of power, but also by their real economic weight. The process by which the role of the major businessmen in society increased was clearly re? cted in the ratings of the country’s most in? uential public ? gures that appear regularly in the newspaper Nezavisimaya gazeta, based on expert surveys. The ? rst businessmen appeared in the list in 1996 (see Table 1). By 1997 they had achieved their maximum in? uence, and the leader of the groupdBoris Berezovskydwas regularly identi? ed as one of the country’s half-dozen most powerful individuals. One of the oligarchs, the head of Al’fa Bank Mikhail Fridman, spoke in this sense in an interview in 1997, soon after President Yeltsin had received him and his colleagues in the Kremlin. Imagine’, as he put it, ‘if President Gorbachev had met a businessman or two, it would have been meaningless, because their social status was so di? eren t. Just the fact that the meeting with Yeltsin took place shows how complete is the change in place and role of the business community in our social hierarchy. Now we occupy a very prestigious place’ (interview, 1997). In the ? rst years of their existence the oligarchs were a fairly small and united group, who represented not so much the entrepreneurial class as a whole as their own 298 O. Kryshtanovskaya, S. White / Communist and Post-Communist Studies 38 (2005) 293e307 Table 1 Oligarchs and their in? uence, 1996e2000 1996 1. Berezovsky B. A. 2. Potanin V. O. 3. Vyakhirev R. I. 4. Gusinsky V. A. 5. Khodorkovsky M. B. 6. Alekperov V. Yu. 7. Fridman M. M. 8. Aven P. I. 9. Abramovich R. A. 10. Mamut M. A. 11. Smolensky A. P. 12. Vinogradov V. V. 13. Nevzlin L. B. 14. Yevtushenkov V. No. of oligarchs included Average rating 98 84 e e e e e e e e e e e e 2 91 1997 6 20 13 15 28 25 e e e e 26 55 e e 8 24 1998 4 19 8 15 25 23 59 e e e 31 51 90 e 10 33 1999 5 53 12 19 72 26 94 98 29 e e e e 36 10 44 2000 4 47 7 15 60 26 54 39 5 21 e e e e 10 28 Source: Adapted from data supplied by the Vox Populi agency, as published regularly in Nezavisimaya gazeta; the list shows the place of Russian businessmen within the country’s 100 most in? uential individuals, in descending order of magnitude. narrowly corporate interests. Even their lobbying was directed not so much towards the adoption of laws in which Russian capital as a whole had a signi? cant stake, but towards the receipt of speci? c privileges for their own ? rms. The best known of the ? rst-wave oligarchs attempted not so much to de? ne the political direction of the country as to monitor personnel changes in the government. The idea of the allpowerful nature of the oligarchs in 1995e1996, indeed, was a myth that had been blown up by the media, and their real in? uence on politics was much more limited. The television executive Igor Malashenko, who had joined Yeltsin’s re-election campaign sta? in 1996, insisted later that stories about the ‘incredible power of the oligarchs’ were ‘pure nonsense’, and often encouraged by the oligarchs themselves to exaggerate the in? uence they could command (Nezavisimaya gazeta 3 June 1998: p. 8; Schroder, 1999). But behind the empty newspaper phrases a real process was ? oing on, marking the advance of an entire entrepreneurial class. The oligarchs of 1995e1997 were ambitious and naive. They enriched themselves so quickly that they began to su? er from what Stalin had called the ‘dizziness with success’; in particular, they engaged in open political adventures. They became deputies without any di? culty (which had the welco me advantage that it gave them immunity from prosecution). A few even stood for the presidency in 1991 (manager and banker Martin Shakkum), and again in 1996 (pharmaceuticals magnate Viktor Bryntsalov). But it soon became clear that politics was an expensive game for a business elite that had not yet established its own position, and the frontal attacks of the new Russians were succeeded by attempts to in? uence politics in a more systematic but indirect way. The business elite began to use the media for its purposes, as well as the opposition, trade unions and state o? cials. They started to O. Kryshtanovskaya, S. White / Communist and Post-Communist Studies 38 (2005) 293e307 299 buy insider information so as to use it in their business activities, and to in? ence the taking of particular economic decisions. The ? rst multimillionaires emerged at a time of considerable instability in the country’s power structures, and rose quickly to the very top. They understood all the advantages of their position as businessmen-politicians and played a dangerous game, ? nancing political organisations and the mass media. Their rise coincided with the privatisation of state property and w as accelerated by the re-election of Boris Yeltsin in 1996; afterwards, some of the most prominent oligarchs formed a part of the Kremlin ‘Family’ itself. Pappe, one of the ? rst to study this process, has argued that ‘Up to 1998 all the most powerful economic groupings increased their resources as compared with those available to the power structures’. But from the end of the year and particularly after the August ? nancial crisis the whole process ‘went into reverse’, and soon there was not a single industrial group (with the possible exception of the massive gas corporation Gazprom) that was in a position to in? uence government or even deal with it on equal terms (Pappe, 2000: p. 46). The August crisis and the fall of the oligarchs The August crisis of 1998 and the sudden devaluation of the rouble that accompanied it led to an upheaval in the entire society, including the business elite. Indeed, on our evidence, only 15% of the 1993 business elite had retained their position by 2001. There are several reasons for this far-reaching turnover. In the ? rst place, there had been structural changes in the volatile Russian market. If before 1998 it had been dominated by ? nancial structures (banks, exchanges and investment corporations), after the crisis their role signi? cantly contracted. The speculative sector of the economy was almost destroyed by the August crisis, and did not recover. Goods exchanges, which at one time had ? ourished, disappeared almost entirely, and the number of banks fell sharply. But in the post-crisis period industrial enterprises emerged much more prominently, and they have continued to do so. These changes were re? ected in the composition of the business elite, which came increasingly to consist of entrepreneurs (by 2001 they accounted for as much as 64% of the total). What happened to the 85% of the 1993 business elite who had not retained their position in 2001? According to our evidence, most entrepreneurs who had been members of the 1993 business elite retained their positions in business (52%), but in many cases their scale of activity no longer allowed them to be included in the list of the country’s leading businessmen. Of the remainder, 6% became professional politicians and by 2001 were working full-time in parliament or in government. Nine percent had retired on a pension; these were mostly bankers who had headed commercial, formerly state banks in the early years of economic reform. A further 10% of the 1993 business elite had moved abroad, for the most part in order to protect their personal security, and two had been killed: the head of the Russian Business Round Table Ivan Kivelidi, and the head of the ‘21st Century Association’ Otari Kvantrishvili. 300 O. Kryshtanovskaya, S. White / Communist and Post-Communist Studies 38 (2005) 293e307 There were related changes in the kinds of individuals that composed the business elite. A comparison of the data for 1993 and 2001 makes clear that it has become somewhat younger; its average age fell to 48. years as compared with 51. 8 years in 1993, shortly after the end of communist rule. As before, it is an overwhelminglydindeed exclusivelydmale group. A quarter of the business elite of 2001, fewer than before, came from Moscow or St Petersburg, rather more are from other cities (33%), and even more came from small towns or villages (42%). The reason for the greater provincialism of the business elite is the structural changes that have taken place in its composition; Moscow ? nanciers have to a large extent been replaced by regional industrialists. The occupational and educational background of the business elite has also been changing. In 1993 it was typical to enter business from science as well as industry itself, but by 2001 it was more common to migrate from the state service as well as industry (see Table 2). The entrepreneurs of 2001 were also more educated than their predecessors: just 3% had two degrees in 1993 but now 13% have a second quali? cation, often in law. The social and professional background of the new business elite leaves little doubt that it is still closely connected with the political elite of the Soviet period. Some 29% of the current business elite, for instance, belonged to the Soviet nomenklatura, a ? gure that was actually somewhat higher than it had been 8 years earlier in the immediate aftermath of communist rule. Similar processes have been identi? ed on the basis of survey evidence (Chernysh, 1994; Eyal et al. , 1998). But while the business elite of 1993 were typically of Komsomol origin, now the main source of recruitment of the business elite is government ministries (Table 3). Immediately before they entered the business elite, its members were enterprise directors (25%), state o? ials (20%), employees of private ? rms (27%), sta? from state banks (6%), and others. This was a career progression that was characteristic of the post-communist period. Formerly, the usual retirement destination of a senior public ? gure was the diplomatic service. Now, more often than not, former state o? cials after their retirement become top managers in major corporations. This tendency ? rst made itself apparent in 1992e1993, when a series of members of the government moved to work in commercial structures. They included Petr Aven, who moved from the Ministry of Foreign Economic Relations to the Table 2 Origins of the Russian business elite, 1993e2001 Sphere of activity Industry Science Culture and education Study [ ] State banks State service Other (N ) 1993 35 26 15 0 17 0 39 (115) 2001 50 14 4 13 7 16 30 (131) Source: Authors’ data. The totals include all the spheres in which the respective business elite were active; ‘study’ indicates direct entry into the business elite on completion of higher education. O. Kryshtanovskaya, S. White / Communist and Post-Communist Studies 38 (2005) 293e307 Table 3 Nomenklatura origins of the Russian business elite, 1993e2001 (percentages) 1993 No nomenklatura background Nomenklatura background Of which: Komsomol apparatus CPSU apparatus Soviet executives Senior ministerial positions 76 24 11 4 5 10 301 2001 71 29 7 4 5 12 Source: As Table 2. Those with a nomenklatura background in 1993 exceed the total shown as many members of the business elite worked in more than one position of this kind. residency of Al’fa Bank; Maksim Boiko, who left the State Property Commission to become general director of the advertising group Video International; and Viktor Ilyushin, the former head of Yeltsin’s presidential sta? and then a ? rst deputy prime minister, who moved into the state gas monopoly Gazprom. In other movements, Andrei Kozyrev went from the Foreign Ministry to the American company ICN Pharmaceuticals; Petr Mostovoi moved from the Federal Ban kruptcy Service to become ? rst vice-president of the diamond company Alrosa; Alfred Kokh, who had been ? st deputy chairman of the State Property Commission and deputy premier, became head of the Montes Auri company; and Oleg Sysuev, who had been deputy prime minister and before that mayor of Samara, became vice-president of Al’fa Bank. Subsequently the process became a much more general one. Over the entire post-communist period there have been substantial changes in the way in which the country’s leading entrepreneurs have entered business. In 1993e 1995 the most common way of establishing a successful commercial company was the creation by a state o? cial of a ? rm into which he could move directly. We call this process ‘moving chairs’; it was one of the ways in which the former ruling group exchanged their power for property. Instead of the ‘diplomatic exile’ of the Soviet period, a new means of retirement developeddmoving into business. Firms that were set up on this basis soon ? lled up with highly placed retirees. As we were frequently told in our interviews with former party o? cials and the senior sta? of government ministries, only ‘our own people’ were given appointments in ? rms of this kind, which had typically evolved from ministries and government bodies of the Soviet period. The next most common means of exchanging power for property was when a state body delegated the right to conduct commercial activity to its authorised representatives. The leading positions in these companies were then ? lled with young people who were not directly related to the Soviet nomenklatura, or who held only junior positions within it. And ? nally, the third common means of establishing a successful business was the privatisation of former state enterprises. In most cases 3 We rely in this instance on the interviews conducted for our ‘Transformation of the Russian elite’ project between 2000 and 2004 (450 interviews). 02 O. Kryshtanovskaya, S. White / Communist and Post-Communist Studies 38 (2005) 293e307 the enterprise that had become a joint stock company did not change its managers (or did not do so immediately) and the director remained at his post, no longer simply the manager but now the owner of the enterprise over which he presided. In 1993 the most characteristic route into business was through the creation of a ? rm of one’s own by the use of o? cial position (57% of the business elite); by 2001 it was more common for members of the business elite to create their own ? ms through the privatisation of state enterprises (39%). Business and politics After the crisis, not only the business elite had changed: its in? uence upon the political process had also changed. The ‘old’ oligarchs of the Yeltsin period retired into the shadows, yielding their place to a new generation of entrepreneurs. These ‘new Russians’ were more provincial, more closely associated with domestic industry, and not so naively ambitious. The insecurity of the ? rst-wave oligarchs, who had su? ered because of their proximity to the regime, taught them to be cautious. The new oligarchs avoided public life and boasting about their wealth, but sought to establish ? rmer, less conspicuous relations with the authorities at all levels, acting more often than not through intermediaries. The destruction of the media empires of Berezovsky and Gusinsky, both of whom had been forced into exile, made it clear that the post-Yeltsin regime would not allow itself to be blackmailed, and that only groups that cooperated with government would be allowed to acquire important media holdings. The new motto was loyalty. But these changes in the political context did not mean that entrepreneurs withdrew into obscurity. Their in? uence changed in form, but all the same remained signi? cant. It was no longer individual mavericksdthe Borovois, Bryntsalovs and Berezovskysdwho stood out on the political arena, but a series of more shadowy ? gures representing the most powerful corporationsdGazprom, Lukoil, Yukos, Al’fa and so forth. Of the ‘old’ oligarchy, only the Al’fa group were still well represented on the political scene in the early years of the new century; two of its senior managers, for instance, took positions as deputy heads of the presidential administration in 1999 (Vyacheslav Surkov and Sergei Abramov). Al’fa people accounted at this time for an entire contingent of the presidential administration on Old Square in Moscow, where they occupied key positions as high-level consultants or department heads. However, notwithstanding the fact that the personal in? uence of the ? rst-wave oligarchs declined considerably, the role of major businessmen in society tended to increase still further. In Table 4 we set out our evidence for the Yeltsin (1993) and Putin (2001, 2003) leaderships, examining the proportion of key decision-making positions that are held by individuals from the world of big business in each of these periods. In almost every category the proportion of business representatives has increased and across all categories the representation of business more than trebled, reaching a remarkable 20% of government ministers. The minister of fuel and energy, for instance, was a representative of Yukos in 1998e1999 (Sergei Generalov), and was O. Kryshtanovskaya, S. White / Communist and Post-Communist Studies 38 (2005) 293e307 Table 4 Business representation in elite groups (percentages) Top leadership Yeltsin cohort (1993) Putin cohort (2001) Putin cohort (2003) Source: As Table 2. 2. 3 15. 7 9. 1 Duma deputies 12. 8 17. 3 17. Government 0. 0 4. 2 20. 0 Regional elite 2. 6 8. 1 12. 5 303 Overall 4. 4 9. 3 14. 7 a representative of Lukoil in 2000 (Alexander Gavrin). Another ? gure from the Al’fa group, Andrei Popov, was head of the territorial department of the presidential administration, where he served side by side with his Al’fa colleagues Surkov and Abramov. Business in the Russian regions The oligarchy strengthened its position even more considerably in the Russian regions than in the federal centre. The crisis that followed the collapse of the currency in August 1998 a? ected Moscow oligarchs more than their provincial counterparts. The Yeltsin oligarchy collapsed, but in the regions the merger of business and politics continued. The August crisis, in fact, accelerated the process. Ruined Moscow businessmen closed their regional o? ces; in turn, they were taken over by local administrations or by the companies they controlled. There was, in e? ect, a new redistribution of property in 1998e2000. Property was removed from its former owners in exchange for the cancellation of debts, in either of two forms: the return of ownership to the state itself (nationalisation), or the replacement of one private owner by another (reprivatisation). Both of these methods were actively employed by local leaderships throughout the federation. The velvet nationalisation of the post-crisis period took place under the guidance of local authorities. The ? rst experiment of this kind was carried out by Evgenii Mikhailov, governor of Pskov region who introduced a monopoly in the production and wholesale trade of alcohol (Slider, 1999). The ? rst state unitary enterprise ‘Pskovalko’ was established for these purposes. The model proved extremely e? ctive, and over the following year eight more such enterprises were established, including ‘Pskovobllesprom’, ‘Pskovtorf’, ‘Pskovvtorma’ and others. To assist the newly established state enterprises local enterprises were deprived of their productive assets in return for the cancellation of tax arrears. Regional tax inspectors were encouraged to identify as many of these indebted enterprises as possible, and defaulters were forced into bankrup tcy so that their property could be taken over by local state enterprisesdin e? ect, by local administrations. Mikhailov’s actions were so much to the advantage of local elites that his approach was immediately adopted throughout the country, leading to the establishment of large numbers of local monopolies modelled on the national gas and energy monopolies. It was not only local political leaderships that forced Moscow oligarchs out of the regions. Local entrepreneurs who were friendly with or even related to local 304 O. Kryshtanovskaya, S. White / Communist and Post-Communist Studies 38 (2005) 293e307 leaderships were also involved in the process. In Kursk, for instance, overnor Alexander Rutskoi handed the region’s network of chemists’ shops to his elder son Dmitrii, making him the general director of ‘Kurskpharmacy’. The governor’s younger son became a manager of the oil concern ‘Kurskneftekhim’, 49% of which was owned by a Moscow ? rm whose director was the same younger son. The governor’s brothers were also fortunate: the eld er became head of a state-joint stock company ‘Faktor’, and the younger became deputy head of the regional department of public security. The governor’s mother became the cofounder of a local ? m, and his father in law took over responsibility for the region’s cultural a? airs (these details are drawn from the National News Service at http://www. nns. ru). Reprivatisation and the strengthening of the local oligarchy have been taking place in all the Russian regions. It has acquired especially large dimensions in the national republics, where forms of authoritarian rule have become increasingly prominent. In Bashkortostan, to take another example, an entire clan of presidential relatives has come into existence. The president’s son, Ural Rakhimov, was vicepresident of the oil and gas company ‘Bashneftekhim’ in the early years of the new century; a relative of the president’s wife, Azat Kurmanaev, was president of ‘Bashkreditbank’; and the president’s wife, Luisa Rakhimov, held a senior position in the republic’s ministry of foreign relations and trade. The nationalisation of the Bashkir economy was also advancing rapidly, with the establishment of state monopolies in key spheres such as ‘Bashlesprom’ (timber), ‘Bashkirskaya toplivnaya kompaniya’ (fuel) and ‘Bashavtotrans’ (transportation) (http://www. ns. ru). By 2000 the power of regional oligarchs had strengthened to such an extent that they began to expand economically in neighbouring regions. Regional oligarchs began to appear, with interests that spanned several of the subjects of the federation. In this process, new ? nancial and industrial gro ups came into existence that had no connection with the ? rst-wave Moscow oligarchy. A striking example of this type was Aleksei Mordashov, general director of the ‘Severstal’’ joint stock company (based in Cherepovets in the Vologda region), who entered the list of the country’s most in? ential businessmen at the end of the 1990s. The same kind of interregional expansion was being carried out by entrepreneurs from Sverdlovsk and Samara regions, and Bashkortostan. New holding companies on a transregional scale that have emerged in recent years include the Urals mining and metallurgical company, Novolipets metallurgical combine, and the St Petersburg concern ‘New Programmes and Conceptions’. The increasing economic power of regional entrepreneurs was re? ected in their political in? uence. In local elections throughout the country it became apparent that electors preferred to vote for major businessmen, and for the directors of joint stock companies and of the region’s biggest factories. In the elections that took place in the late 1990s representatives of the industrial and ? nancial elite took 80% of seats in the Perm’ region, about 70% in Smolensk region, about 60% in Penza, Tambov and Tomsk regions, and more than half in Belgorod, Leningrad, Nizhnii Novgorod, Omsk, Rostov and Stavropol’ regions, and in Primorskii territory. The average, across all the regions that held their elections between 1995 and 1997, was 43% (calculated from Vybory, 1998). An increase in the political role of local oligarchs led O. Kryshtanovskaya, S. White / Communist and Post-Communist Studies 38 (2005) 293e307 305 at the same time to a fall in the electoral role of civil society. The more oligarchs and o? cials in local legislatures, the fewer teachers, doctors and farmers. The election of representatives of the ? ancial-industrial elite to representative institutions of this kind demonstrates that the tendency for regional capital and government to merge has become increasingly powerful. The increase in the in? uence of ? nancial-industrial circles in Russian towns and cities is paralleled by the increasing in? uence of state-farm directors in the countryside. As a result, in all regional legislatures the directors of joint stock companies, and of unitary enterprises, banks and other commercial structures, have become the dom inant force. New entrepreneurs, within this general tendency, have themselves become more numerous, squeezing out longer-established factory managers throughout the regions and especially where relatively large numbers of local enterprises are in ? nancial di? culty. Owners and managers, according to local legislation, are allowed to combine their entrepreneurial activities provided their representative duties are carried out on a part-time basis. In this way, they have obtained a series of legislative and supervisory prerogatives but at the same time been relieved of the burdens of full-time legislative duties. The increasing in? uence of business on regional politics is also apparent in the formation of local administrations. With every year, for instance, the number of businessmen-governors increases. The ‘? rst swallow’ was Kalmykia, where the wellknown entrepreneur Kirsan Ilyumzhinov was elected president as early as 1993. In 1996 three local oligarchs became governors: Yuri Evdokimov in Murmansk (where he had represented the interests of the Moscow mayor’s group ‘Sistema’), Leonid Gorbenko in Kaliningrad, and Vladimir Butov in the Nenets autonomous region. The elections of 2000e2001 added several more, including heads of the most important local enterprises: in Chukotka the head of Sibneft’ and owner of Chelsea Football Club, Roman Abramovich (in 2000); in Taimyr the head of Noril’sk Nickel, Alexander Khloponin (elected in 2001 and then a year later as governor of Krasnoyarsk territory); and in Evenki Boris Zolotarev, head of development at the oil giant ‘Yukos’ (in 2001). In Krasnodar territory, the Koryak autonomous district and Primor’e local oligarchs had further successes: Alexander Tkachev, Vladimir Loginov (December 2000) and Sergei Dar’kin (in 2001). In early 2002 there were two further successes of this kind, Vyacheslav Shtyrov won in Sakha (Yakutia), and Hazret Sovmen in Adygeya. As a result of these changes, 12 Russian regions (or nearly 14% of the total) are today headed by major businessmen. Conclusions Several new tendencies in the development of the Russian business elite had become apparent by the early years of the new century. 1. Powerful ? nancial-industrial groups have begun to appear that are based not in Moscow but in the Russian provinces, and which are furthering the process of inter-regional integration. At the same time the transfer of the business and 306 O. Kryshtanovskaya, S. White / Communist and Post-Communist Studies 38 (2005) 293e307 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. political activities of the business elite from the capital to the regions has been accompanied by an increase in the role of the state, which has taken steps to restore its control over political and economic life. The strengthening of the state has placed tighter limits on the business elite and restricted its freedom of activity, which has led to a reduction in its direct in? ence on the political process. This relates particularly to personnel matters, where the state has taken back the role of principal decision-maker, and to the mass media. By the early years of the new century the business elite were making fewer attempts to impose their own preferences upon government ‘from outside’, but were engaged in a process of interaction with all levels of government in which they could introduce their own priorities as issues were formulated and decisions were taken. From 1998 onwards there has been a further exclusion of Moscow capital from the regions and an increase in the concentration of power at the regional level. At the same time in a series of the republics the fusion of business and government has advanced even further, as has the formation of local oligarchies. Sometimes this process has assumed autocratic forms in which big business in a region has come under the absolute control not of the state, but of its leading o? cials, who have formed ? ancial-industrial clans enjoying an e? ective monopoly of political power. The interests of big business have changed. If before they were simply connected with privileges for their companies, now with the increase in the scale of their operation they have begun to press their views in relation to the regulation of the economy as a whole. This has led to an increase in the economic in? uence of private business, which has to some extent compensated for their loss of political in? uence. With the coming to power of Vladimir Putin in 2000 private entrepreneurs have begun to be excluded from the main electronic media. The destruction of the media holdings of Gusinsky and Berezovsky, and the arrest of Mikhail Khodorkovsky in late 2003, were intended to show ‘who’s boss’. The new regime made it clear it would not be blackmailed, as Boris Yeltsin had been; and formerly oppositional media were entrusted to groups that had shown their loyalty. In the period after the August 1998 crisis big business became a refuge for many retired politicians, with a substantial out? w of senior o? cials, ministers and civil servants into the managerial ranks of the major companies. Putin’s declared policy of ‘equal distancing’ for the oligarchs means a choice: either to support the regime in all its undertakings, or retire to the sidelines. No longer can Russia’s business elite establish their own parties and engage in open criticism of the go vernment. The new regime is engaged in restoring state power, after a period in which it had been privatised by o? cials and businessmen. 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